When you hear the term “critical thinking,” what impression does it give you? Since it is often translated as “批判的思考” (critical thinking) in Japanese, many people misunderstand it as a way of thinking that denies or criticizes everything. However, true critical thinking is a constructive and logical thought process. In modern society, where we are flooded with information and face complex problems on a daily basis, the importance of this way of thinking is increasing.
The Essence of Critical Thinking
Verification, Not Criticism
The word “critical” in critical thinking derives from the English word “critical,” which means “important” or “decisive.” In other words, the essence is not to deny things, but to identify key points and objectively verify information and claims.
For example, when you see a news report stating “90% of people succeeded with a new diet method,” critical thinking would raise the following questions:
- How many people were surveyed?
- Under what conditions was it conducted?
- What is the definition of “success”?
- Who conducted the survey, and is there any conflict of interest?
These questions are not meant to deny the information, but to understand it more accurately. According to contemporary definitions in cognitive psychology and education research, critical thinking is characterized as “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information gathered from observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul, 2003). This definition emphasizes that critical thinking is based on universal intellectual values such as clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness.
The Invisible Barrier of Assumptions
The human thought process contains unconscious assumptions and biases. These are shaped by past experiences, cultural backgrounds, and information from the media, and can distort our judgments.
For instance, there is an assumption that “the more expensive something is, the better its quality.” However, in reality, price and quality do not necessarily correlate. This is because brand value and marketing costs may be included in the price. Critical thinking emphasizes consciously eliminating such assumptions and making judgments based on objective facts.
Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from rational judgment. Research in cognitive psychology has identified over 180 different types of cognitive biases that affect human decision-making. Among these, confirmation bias—the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs—is particularly pervasive and can significantly impair objective analysis. Recent studies (2024-2025) have shown that confirmation bias can influence virtually all stages of problem-solving and scientific inquiry, from initial hypothesis formation through data interpretation and conclusion drawing.
Other common cognitive biases that affect critical thinking include:
- Anchoring bias: Over-reliance on the first piece of information encountered
- Availability bias: Overestimating the likelihood of events based on their memorability
- Dunning-Kruger effect: Tendency for people with limited knowledge to overestimate their competence
- Survivorship bias: Focusing only on successful cases while ignoring failures
- Bias blind spot: The tendency to recognize biases in others more readily than in oneself
Understanding these biases is essential for developing robust critical thinking skills, as they represent systematic ways in which our reasoning can be led astray.
The Importance of Questioning Assumptions
The Courage to Question the Obvious
There are many things in society that are considered “obvious.” However, this “obvious” can sometimes be the most dangerous pitfall, precisely because no one questions it.
Looking back at history, many groundbreaking discoveries and innovations began by questioning the common sense of the time. When Copernicus proposed the heliocentric theory, he challenged the common sense of the time that “the Earth is the center of the universe.” Even in modern business, questioning the assumption that “customers come to stores” led to the creation of a new business model called online shopping.
How to Identify Assumptions
To identify assumptions, you need to clarify the assumptions underlying an argument or claim. For example, behind the claim that “reducing overtime hours will improve productivity,” the following assumptions are hidden:
- Current overtime is caused by inefficient work
- Workers’ abilities decline due to fatigue
- Time constraints increase concentration
By verifying whether these assumptions are correct, you can more accurately evaluate the validity of the claim.
Not Losing Sight of the Original Purpose
The Trap of Means Becoming Ends
One of the problems that organizations and individuals easily fall into is the “means becoming ends.” This is a phenomenon where what was originally a means to achieve a goal becomes the goal itself.
For example, there are cases where a sales management system introduced for the purpose of “increasing sales” ends up with “entering data accurately into the system” becoming the goal. The operation of the system becomes the goal, not the original goal of increasing sales.
This phenomenon, known as goal displacement in organizational behavior literature, is a well-documented challenge in both corporate and institutional settings. Research has shown that when performance metrics or procedural compliance become prioritized over substantive outcomes, organizational effectiveness can suffer significantly. The antidote to goal displacement is regular critical evaluation of whether current activities align with intended outcomes.
How to Keep the Purpose Clear
In order not to lose sight of the original purpose, it is important to regularly ask yourself “Why am I doing this?” and “What do I ultimately want to achieve?” It is also effective to clarify the following points when setting goals:
- What is the state you ultimately want to realize?
- How will you measure that the state has been realized?
- How do current activities contribute to that goal?
Practicing Critical Thinking in Daily Life
Application in Information Gathering
The modern era is called the information society, and we have access to vast amounts of information through the internet and social media. However, among them, there is also inaccurate information and biased views. By utilizing critical thinking, you can discern reliable information.
Checkpoint for Evaluating Information
When assessing the credibility and utility of information sources, critical thinkers should consider:
- Is the information source reliable?
- Can it be confirmed by multiple independent sources?
- Does the information provider have a conflict of interest?
- Is there logical consistency?
- Have opposing opinions been considered?
In the context of 2024-2025, the emergence of generative AI technologies such as ChatGPT and other large language models has added new dimensions to information literacy. While these tools can assist in information gathering and analysis, research has shown they can also amplify certain biases and may generate plausible-sounding but inaccurate information (so-called “hallucinations”). Therefore, critical evaluation of AI-generated content is becoming an essential skill. Studies published in 2024-2025 suggest that AI should be viewed as a complementary tool that requires critical human evaluation and review, rather than as an authoritative source.
Key considerations for AI-assisted information gathering include:
| Evaluation Criterion | Human-Generated Content | AI-Generated Content |
|---|---|---|
| Source verification | Check author credentials and institutional affiliation | Verify training data sources and model limitations |
| Bias detection | Identify individual or organizational bias | Recognize potential training data biases and algorithmic limitations |
| Factual accuracy | Cross-reference with primary sources | Must independently verify all factual claims |
| Temporal relevance | Check publication date | Consider knowledge cutoff date and currency of information |
| Logical coherence | Assess argumentation structure | Evaluate for consistency and potential contradictions |
Utilization in Decision Making
Critical thinking is also a powerful tool in personal decision-making. When making important decisions in life such as job changes, investments, and marriage, going through a logical thought process, not just emotions and intuition, increases the possibility of making better choices.
Decision-Making Process
A systematic approach to critical decision-making includes:
- Clarification of the problem or issue
- Identification of options
- Evaluation of the merits and demerits of each option
- Setting of judgment criteria
- Documentation of the decision and its rationale
This structured approach, often referred to as rational decision-making framework, helps minimize the influence of cognitive biases and emotional factors that can cloud judgment. Recent research (2024) emphasizes the importance of explicitly documenting both the decision and the reasoning behind it, as this practice enhances accountability and facilitates learning from outcomes.
The Value of Critical Thinking in Organizations
Source of Innovation
For companies and organizations, human resources with critical thinking are valuable assets. This is because by questioning existing methods and common sense and looking at problems from new perspectives, they can create innovative solutions and business models.
Contemporary organizational research highlights that critical thinking capabilities are foundational to adaptive innovation—the ability of organizations to continuously evolve in response to changing market conditions, technological disruptions, and emerging opportunities. Companies that cultivate critical thinking cultures are better positioned to identify blind spots, challenge outdated assumptions, and develop breakthrough solutions.
Improvement of Risk Management
Critical thinking also plays an important role in risk management. By considering not only optimistic prospects but also the worst-case scenarios and identifying potential problems in advance, the sustainability of the organization can be enhanced.
Effective risk management through critical thinking involves:
- Scenario planning: Systematic exploration of multiple plausible futures
- Red team analysis: Deliberately challenging assumptions and plans
- Premortem analysis: Imagining that a project has failed and working backward to identify potential causes
- Devil’s advocate approach: Assigning someone to argue against proposed decisions
These structured techniques help organizations avoid groupthink—the phenomenon where the desire for harmony and conformity results in irrational decision-making—and ensure that potential risks are thoroughly evaluated before commitments are made.
How to Acquire Critical Thinking
The Importance of Continuous Practice
Critical thinking is not something that can be acquired overnight. By consciously practicing it on a daily basis, it gradually becomes established as a habit of thought.
Specific Practice Methods
To develop and strengthen critical thinking skills:
- When reading news or articles, always check multiple sources of information
- Try thinking from a position opposed to your own opinion
- Frequently ask questions such as “Why?” and “Really?”
- When discussing, speak based on facts, not emotions
- Engage in deliberate reflection on your own reasoning processes
- Seek out perspectives that challenge your assumptions
- Practice articulating the logical structure of arguments, both your own and others’
Research in cognitive psychology and education (2024-2025) emphasizes that critical thinking skills develop most effectively through deliberate practice—purposeful, systematic exercises specifically designed to improve performance in this domain. This is distinct from mere experience; it requires focused attention on identifying and correcting thinking errors, soliciting feedback, and progressively tackling more complex reasoning challenges.
The Attitude of Accepting Diverse Perspectives
In order to deepen critical thinking, dialogue with people who have different backgrounds and values is indispensable. By being exposed to diverse perspectives, you can notice the bias in your own thinking and become able to make more objective judgments.
Intellectual humility—the recognition of the limits of one’s knowledge and the willingness to revise beliefs in light of new evidence—is increasingly recognized as a core component of critical thinking. Studies from 2024-2025 demonstrate that individuals high in intellectual humility are more likely to:
- Seek out information that contradicts their beliefs
- Accurately assess the strength of evidence
- Update their views when presented with superior arguments
- Engage constructively in disagreements
- Recognize the complexity of issues
Creating environments that foster intellectual humility and welcome diverse perspectives is essential for developing robust critical thinking capabilities, both individually and organizationally.
Critical Thinking in the Age of Artificial Intelligence
As we navigate the rapidly evolving landscape of 2025, the intersection of artificial intelligence and critical thinking has become increasingly important. While AI tools offer unprecedented capabilities for information processing and analysis, they also present new challenges that make critical thinking more essential than ever.
The Dual Nature of AI’s Impact
Recent systematic reviews (2024-2025) examining critical thinking in the age of AI have revealed both opportunities and concerns:
Opportunities:
- AI can provide diverse perspectives and facilitate exploration of complex topics
- Interactive AI systems can stimulate inquiry and deeper analysis
- AI tools can help identify patterns and connections in large datasets
- Automated fact-checking capabilities can support verification processes
Concerns:
- Over-reliance on AI may diminish independent analytical skills
- AI systems may perpetuate or amplify existing biases in their training data
- The ease of AI-generated content may encourage acceptance without critical evaluation
- Reduced human interaction in learning environments may impact development of critical thinking skills
Guidelines for Critical Engagement with AI
To effectively leverage AI while maintaining robust critical thinking:
Treat AI as a collaborative tool, not an oracle: AI systems should augment human judgment, not replace it. Always critically evaluate AI-generated content for accuracy, relevance, and potential biases.
Verify AI outputs independently: Never accept AI-generated facts, statistics, or citations without verification from authoritative primary sources. AI models can generate plausible but incorrect information.
Understand AI limitations: Recognize that AI systems have knowledge cutoff dates, may lack access to the most current information, and cannot grasp nuanced context in the same way humans can.
Maintain human oversight: Critical decisions should always involve human judgment that considers ethical dimensions, contextual factors, and long-term implications that AI may not adequately weigh.
Use AI to challenge your thinking: Deliberately ask AI to present counterarguments to your positions or to identify potential flaws in your reasoning, but critically evaluate these responses as well.
Conclusion: The Enduring Value of Critical Thinking
In an era characterized by information abundance, rapid technological change, and increasing complexity, critical thinking represents one of the most valuable competencies individuals and organizations can cultivate. It is not merely an academic exercise but a practical skill with profound implications for personal success, organizational effectiveness, and societal progress.
Critical thinking empowers us to:
- Navigate information environments with discernment
- Make decisions grounded in evidence and reason
- Innovate by questioning established paradigms
- Manage risks through systematic analysis
- Engage constructively with diverse perspectives
- Adapt to changing circumstances with clarity and purpose
As we look toward the future, the integration of artificial intelligence into virtually every domain of human activity makes critical thinking not less important, but more so. The ability to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, recognize biases, and reason logically will remain distinctly human capabilities that complement and guide our use of increasingly powerful technologies.
By committing to the continuous development of critical thinking skills—through deliberate practice, openness to diverse viewpoints, and intellectual humility—we equip ourselves not only to survive but to thrive in an uncertain and complex world. The investment in critical thinking is an investment in our capacity to understand reality more clearly, make wiser decisions, and contribute more effectively to solving the challenges we collectively face.
References and Further Reading
For those interested in deepening their understanding of critical thinking:
- Foundation for Critical Thinking (www.criticalthinking.org): Comprehensive resources on the Paul-Elder framework
- The Decision Lab: Interactive guides on cognitive biases and their mitigation
- Academic journals focusing on critical thinking research: Thinking Skills and Creativity, Critical Thinking Research
- Recent publications on AI and critical thinking from educational psychology research (2024-2025)
The journey toward becoming a more critical thinker is lifelong, but each step along that path enhances our ability to understand the world and act effectively within it.
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